By Zabihullah Rahmani *

Introduction

Menstruation is a natural biological process experienced by millions of individuals worldwide throughout the life course. Despite its universality, it remains surrounded by silence, stigma, misinformation, restrictive social norms, and discriminatory practices in many societies. These challenges affect physical health, psychological wellbeing, educational opportunities, employment participation, gender equality, and the broader realization of human rights (Wilbur et al., 2021; Paudel, 2020a). Although global attention to menstrual health has increased in recent years, prevailing approaches have largely focused on Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM), access to menstrual products, and Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) infrastructure. While these interventions are essential, they often provide limited attention to the structural, social, and rights-based dimensions of menstrual discrimination (UNICEF, 2021; Paudel, 2020a).

To address these broader inequalities, the Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation (GSCDM) conceptualizes Dignified Menstruation as freedom from all forms of menstrual discrimination throughout the life course, including stigma, silence, taboos, restrictions, exclusion, and systemic forms of inequality (Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation, 2025; Paudel, 2020a). Unlike approaches that primarily frame menstruation as a matter of hygiene management, the GSCDM framework positions menstruation within the principles of human dignity, equality, freedom, and non-discrimination, providing a comprehensive human rights-based perspective for research, advocacy, and policymaking (Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation, 2025).

Menstrual discrimination represents a complex and multidimensional social issue shaped by gender norms, unequal power relations, cultural interpretations, and institutional limitations. Across different contexts, menstruators may experience restrictions in social and religious participation, pressure to conceal menstruation, family and community exclusion, and unequal access to reliable information and support. These experiences can contribute to psychological distress, shame, reduced confidence, and social isolation (Paudel, 2020b; Resnick, 2024). Such challenges are often intensified among marginalized populations, particularly menstruators with disabilities, who may face additional barriers including inaccessible sanitation facilities, limited inclusive education, communication challenges, and inadequate consideration within social protection systems (Wilbur et al., 2021; Steele & Goldblatt, 2020).

International human rights instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, Articles 1 and 2), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, Articles 10 and 12), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, Articles 24 and 28), and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD, Articles 9, 24, and 25), provide a strong normative foundation for protecting dignity, equality, education, health, and non-discrimination (United Nations, 1948, 1979, 1989, 2006). However, menstrual discrimination remains largely absent as an explicit issue within legal and policy frameworks, creating continuing gaps between international human rights commitments and the lived realities of many menstruators (United Nations, 2006; Singh, 2024).

This study, titled “From Silence to Dignity: Why Dignified Menstruation Matters for Human Rights and Equality,” examines the relationship between menstrual discrimination, human rights, gender equality, disability inclusion, and social justice. Using a global human rights perspective, the research combines qualitative interviews with diverse stakeholders, including healthcare professionals, psychologists, legal experts, human rights advocates, educators, journalists, religious scholars, and youth representatives, with secondary analysis of academic literature, international legal frameworks, and policy documents. In addition, the study incorporates policy analysis from Nepal as a comparative case, recognizing its significant role as the institutional and conceptual center of the Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation (GSCDM) and its contribution to advancing rights-based approaches to menstrual dignity.

The primary objectives of this research are to:

• Examine the social, cultural, psychological, and institutional factors that contribute to menstrual discrimination and inequality.

• Explore the lived experiences and intersectional barriers faced by menstruators, with particular attention to marginalized groups and persons with disabilities.

• Analyze international human rights standards and national policy frameworks related to menstrual dignity, gender equality, and disability inclusion.

• Identify legal, institutional, and social gaps and develop evidence-based recommendations to advance dignified menstruation as a human rights priority.

By integrating stakeholder perspectives with international human rights principles, this research demonstrates that menstruation is not only a biological experience but also an issue of equality, justice, dignity, and human rights. Achieving meaningful progress requires addressing harmful social norms, strengthening inclusive institutions, and ensuring that every individual can experience menstruation with safety, respect, and equal opportunities.

Research Background

Menstruation is a natural biological process experienced by millions of individuals worldwide throughout the life course. Despite its universality, menstrual experiences continue to be shaped by persistent stigma, silence, misinformation, restrictive social norms, and unequal power relations that undermine the dignity, autonomy, and social participation of menstruators (Paudel, 2020a; Wilbur et al., 2021). Menstrual discrimination extends beyond limited access to menstrual products or infrastructure; it reflects broader systems of exclusion involving harmful social beliefs, taboos, shame, unequal access to information, and restrictions on participation and opportunities across different stages of life (Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation, 2025).

Over the past decade, menstrual health has gained increasing recognition within global development and public health discussions. However, many interventions have primarily focused on Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM), menstrual products, and Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) services. While these interventions remain essential for improving menstrual experiences, they do not fully address the deeper social and structural factors that sustain discrimination, including unequal gender relations, harmful cultural norms, institutional limitations, and exclusionary systems (UNICEF, 2021; Paudel, 2020a). This limitation has contributed to a broader shift toward rights-based approaches that understand menstruation through the principles of dignity, equality, participation, bodily autonomy, and non-discrimination (United Nations, 1948, 1979).

Within this evolving discourse, the study titled “From Silence to Dignity: Why Dignified Menstruation Matters for Human Rights and Equality” examines menstrual discrimination through interconnected perspectives of human rights, gender equality, disability inclusion, and social justice. The conceptual foundation of this research is informed by the Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation (GSCDM) framework, which defines dignified menstruation as freedom from all forms of menstrual discrimination throughout the life course. This approach moves beyond hygiene-centered perspectives by emphasizing the principles of dignity, freedom, equality, and non-discrimination (Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation, 2025; Paudel, 2020a).

Building on this theoretical foundation, the study examines menstruation as a multidimensional issue connected with education, healthcare, disability inclusion, social norms, legal protection, and sustainable development. By integrating qualitative insights from diverse stakeholders with academic literature, international human rights instruments, and comparative policy analysis, this research contributes to the growing evidence base on menstrual dignity and supports the development of more inclusive and rights-based approaches to addressing menstrual discrimination.

Research Objectives

The overarching aim of this study is to critically examine menstrual discrimination through the interconnected perspectives of human rights, gender equality, disability inclusion, and social justice. Specifically, the research seeks to:

• Examine the social, cultural, psychological, legal, and human rights dimensions of menstrual discrimination and their implications for dignity, bodily autonomy, equality, and social participation.

• Explore how stigma, silence, misinformation, restrictive social norms, and institutional barriers influence the lived experiences, wellbeing, and opportunities of menstruators, with particular attention to marginalized groups and persons with disabilities.

• Analyze international human rights frameworks, national policy approaches, and institutional mechanisms related to menstrual dignity, non-discrimination, gender equality, and disability inclusion.

• Investigate the perspectives of diverse stakeholders, including healthcare professionals, legal experts, psychologists, human rights advocates, educators, journalists, religious scholars, activists, and youth representatives, to understand the causes, impacts, and potential solutions related to menstrual discrimination.

• Identify key legal, structural, educational, and institutional gaps, and develop evidence-based recommendations to strengthen dignified menstruation as a human rights priority within policy development, healthcare systems, educational settings, and community-based initiatives.

Research Methodology

Research Design and Approach

This study adopted a qualitative research design to develop an in-depth understanding of menstrual discrimination, lived experiences, social perceptions, and institutional challenges related to dignified menstruation. A qualitative approach was considered appropriate because the research aimed to explore complex social realities, personal narratives, cultural influences, and stakeholder perspectives that cannot be fully captured through quantitative approaches.

To generate a comprehensive and multidimensional analysis, the study integrated primary qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews with a secondary review of academic literature, international human rights instruments, policy documents, and relevant institutional reports related to menstrual dignity, gender equality, disability inclusion, and human rights.

Geographic and Contextual Framework

This research adopts a global human rights perspective while maintaining contextual relevance through the inclusion of diverse stakeholder experiences and comparative policy analysis.

The primary qualitative data were collected from stakeholders representing different professional, social, and regional backgrounds, particularly within South Asian and humanitarian contexts, including Afghanistan. The inclusion of diverse perspectives enabled the study to examine menstrual discrimination through multiple dimensions, including healthcare, education, law, media, religion, psychology, and human rights advocacy.

For comparative policy analysis, Nepal was selected as a focused case example due to its significant role in the development and advancement of the Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation (GSCDM) framework. Nepal’s policy environment provides an important context for examining how national systems address menstrual dignity, disability inclusion, reproductive health, and gender equality. The analysis of Nepal’s legal and policy frameworks was therefore used to identify both progress and remaining gaps in institutional responses to menstrual discrimination.

Primary Data Collection and Participant Selection

Primary data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews with 11 participants selected through purposive sampling. Participants were selected based on their professional expertise, lived experiences, and engagement with issues related to healthcare, gender equality, human rights, education, law, media, religion, psychology, and youth development.

The participants included:

Dr. Noor Rahman Itraq, Medical Doctor, who provided medical perspectives on menstruation as a biological process, menstrual health challenges, healthcare access, and the impact of stigma on physical and social wellbeing.

Hadia Hussini, Writer and Cultural Analyst, who contributed perspectives on social narratives, cultural perceptions, storytelling, and the role of communication in challenging menstrual stigma and silence.

Feroz Zwak, Psychologist, who provided insights into the psychological consequences of menstrual discrimination, including shame, emotional distress, fear, reduced confidence, and social isolation.

Itoe Francis Ebongue, Investigative Journalist, Research Analyst, Human Rights Advocate, and Communication Strategist, who contributed perspectives on media responsibility, human rights communication, public awareness, and the role of journalism in addressing systemic discrimination.

Hoda Khamosh, Human Rights Activist, who provided analysis of dignity, equality, discrimination, and the relationship between menstrual discrimination and broader human rights concerns.

Khatima Afzali, Women’s Rights Activist, who contributed perspectives on gender inequality, women’s rights, social barriers, and rights-based approaches to menstrual dignity.

A high school student and a university student, who shared youth perspectives regarding menstrual awareness, education, social attitudes, access to information, and challenges experienced by young menstruators.

Mawlawi Mahboob Shah Sajid, Islamic Scholar, who contributed perspectives on religious and cultural interpretations of menstruation and the importance of distinguishing religious principles from harmful social misconceptions.

Asia Nabizada, High School Teacher, who provided educational perspectives regarding menstrual awareness among students, school environments, teaching challenges, and the importance of inclusive menstrual education.

Mohammad Zuhoor Sharifi, Dean of the Faculty of Law at Al-Taqwa University, who contributed legal perspectives on human rights principles, equality, policy frameworks, and institutional responsibilities regarding discrimination and dignity.

The semi-structured interview format allowed consistency across major research themes while providing participants with flexibility to share their professional knowledge, personal experiences, and recommendations. The interview questions explored menstrual stigma, social and cultural barriers, psychological impacts, education, healthcare access, disability inclusion, human rights concerns, and possible strategies for promoting dignified menstruation.

Secondary Data Review

To strengthen the analysis, primary interview findings were triangulated with a comprehensive review of secondary sources, including peer-reviewed academic literature, international reports, legal documents, policy frameworks, and human rights instruments related to menstruation, gender equality, disability inclusion, and social justice.

The reviewed international frameworks included the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948), Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, 1979), Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989), Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD, 2006), and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those related to health, education, gender equality, inclusion, and reduced inequalities (United Nations, 1948, 1979, 1989, 2006, 2015).

The study also examined policy documents and academic contributions related to the Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation (GSCDM) framework, as well as research addressing menstrual stigma, disability-inclusive WASH, menstrual education, and structural barriers (Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation, 2025; Paudel, 2020a; Wilbur et al., 2021).

Data Analysis

The collected qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Interview responses were systematically reviewed, coded, and categorized to identify recurring themes, patterns, and relationships related to menstrual discrimination.

The analysis focused on key thematic areas, including menstrual stigma, psychological impacts, educational barriers, disability exclusion, human rights concerns, media representation, cultural influences, and institutional challenges. Findings from interviews were then compared and interpreted alongside existing academic literature, human rights standards, and policy frameworks to develop a comprehensive understanding of menstrual dignity and discrimination.

Selected participant perspectives were incorporated into the findings and discussion sections to illustrate lived experiences and strengthen the connection between individual narratives and broader social and human rights analysis.

Ethical Considerations

This study followed fundamental ethical principles by respecting participants’ autonomy, privacy, dignity, and right to provide their perspectives voluntarily. Before conducting interviews, participants were informed about the purpose of the research, the nature of their participation, and the intended use of their contributions.

Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their perspectives were represented accurately and respectfully. Participants’ contributions were used solely for research and analytical purposes, following principles of academic integrity and responsible qualitative research practice.

Research Findings

The findings of this study demonstrate that menstrual discrimination is experienced as a multidimensional and structural issue affecting dignity, equality, education, psychological wellbeing, social participation, and access to opportunities. Through thematic analysis of qualitative interviews, supported by relevant literature and international human rights frameworks, eight interconnected themes were identified:

1. Persistent menstrual silence and lack of comprehensive awareness.
2. Menstrual discrimination as a human rights concern.
3. Psychological and emotional consequences of menstrual stigma.
4. Cultural and religious interpretations shaping menstrual experiences.
5. Gaps in inclusive menstrual education and institutional support.
6. The intersection between menstrual discrimination and gender inequality.
7. The role of media and communication in challenging stigma.
8. The importance of adopting a holistic dignified menstruation framework.

1. Menstrual Silence and Lack of Comprehensive Awareness

The findings reveal that social silence, limited awareness, and inadequate access to accurate information remain significant barriers to dignified menstruation. Participants highlighted that many adolescents experience menstruation without sufficient preparation, scientific understanding, or supportive environments, resulting in confusion, fear, shame, and emotional distress.

The study findings indicate that the absence of age-appropriate menstrual education influences how young people understand and respond to menstruation. Asia Nabizada, a high school teacher, emphasized that many students encounter menstruation without prior knowledge and require supportive educational environments that present menstruation as a natural biological process rather than a source of fear or embarrassment.

“Students need accurate information and supportive school environments before and during menstruation so that they can understand this natural process without fear or shame” (A. Nabizada, personal communication, 2026).

The findings further show that menstrual silence is reinforced through limited family discussions, inadequate school-based education, misinformation, and social discomfort. A university student participant emphasized that dignified menstruation requires more than access to menstrual products; it also requires awareness, education, and changes in social attitudes that prevent individuals from openly discussing menstrual needs.

Participants also identified everyday expressions of stigma, including jokes, embarrassment, avoidance of discussion, and fear of judgment, as factors that contribute to exclusion and discourage young menstruators from seeking support. These findings suggest that menstrual education requires a broader approach that includes biological knowledge, emotional support, confidence-building, stigma reduction, and rights-based awareness.

2. Menstrual Discrimination as a Human Rights Concern

A central finding of this research is that participants viewed menstrual discrimination as a human rights concern rather than only a health or hygiene issue. Participants consistently emphasized that menstruation itself does not create inequality; instead, social stigma, restrictive practices, institutional limitations, and discriminatory attitudes create barriers affecting dignity and participation.

Human rights activist Hoda Khamosh highlighted that the challenges associated with menstruation emerge from surrounding social systems rather than from the biological process itself.

“Menstruation itself is not the problem; rather, the discrimination, stigma, and unequal systems surrounding it create barriers for individuals who menstruate” (H. Khamosh, personal communication, 2026).

The findings indicate that menstrual discrimination influences multiple areas of life, including education, healthcare access, privacy, workplace participation, and social inclusion. Khatima Afzali, a women’s rights activist, emphasized that restrictions and inadequate support related to menstruation contribute to wider patterns of gender inequality by limiting opportunities and reinforcing harmful expectations.

From a legal perspective, Mohammad Zuhoor Sharifi, Dean of the Faculty of Law at Al-Taqwa University, noted that menstrual-related discrimination has often received limited attention within formal legal discussions because it is frequently considered a private or cultural matter rather than a rights-based concern.

“Although the rights to equality, non-discrimination, health, education, and human dignity are recognized within international human rights instruments, menstrual-related challenges are often overlooked in the implementation of these principles” (M. Z. Sharifi, personal communication, 2026).

The findings demonstrate that participants associated menstrual discrimination with broader concerns related to dignity, equality, health, education, and non-discrimination. Their perspectives highlight the importance of addressing menstrual dignity within wider human rights and social inclusion frameworks.

3. Psychological and Emotional Impacts of Menstrual Stigma

The findings demonstrate that menstrual stigma has significant psychological and emotional consequences for individuals who menstruate. Participants described how secrecy, shame, fear of judgment, and negative social messages influence emotional wellbeing, confidence, and personal agency.

Psychologist Feroz Zwak explained that while menstruation involves natural physiological changes, the emotional burden can become more intense when individuals experience menstruation in environments characterized by silence, fear, and social pressure.

“When families provide understanding, accurate information, and emotional support, individuals can experience menstruation with greater confidence and dignity” (F. Zwak, personal communication, 2026).

The thematic analysis identified several psychological impacts associated with menstrual stigma:

Emotional stress and anxiety: Participants reported fear of exposure, embarrassment, and negative reactions from others.

Internalized shame: Social messages portraying menstruation as negative or unacceptable contributed to feelings of discomfort and self-doubt.

Social withdrawal: Some participants highlighted avoidance of educational, social, or community activities due to fear of stigma.

Reduced self-confidence: Negative social perceptions affected individuals’ confidence and willingness to participate openly.

Barriers to healthcare communication: Embarrassment and social discomfort limited open discussion of menstrual health concerns.

Reduced autonomy: Restrictive social expectations influenced personal choices and experiences related to menstruation.

Overall, the findings indicate that menstrual dignity requires attention not only to physical needs but also to psychological safety, emotional support, and environments where menstruation can be experienced without fear, shame, or humiliation.

4. Cultural and Religious Interpretations of Menstruation

The findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between cultural practices associated with menstruation and religious interpretations. Participants emphasized that some harmful restrictions linked to menstruation are influenced by social customs, misinformation, or cultural practices rather than religious principles.

Mawlawi Mahboob Shah Sajid, an Islamic scholar, explained that menstruation is recognized within Islamic jurisprudence as a natural biological condition and should not be associated with shame, humiliation, or social exclusion.

“Menstruation should never be regarded as a source of shame, humiliation, or discrimination. It is a natural process recognized in Islamic teachings, and women should continue to be treated with dignity and respect” (M. M. S. Sajid, personal communication, 2026).

The findings show that while religious traditions include specific guidance regarding certain acts of worship during menstruation, participants did not identify religious principles as justification for practices that undermine dignity, respect, or social participation. Instead, they emphasized the importance of informed dialogue with religious and community leaders to address misconceptions and promote respectful understanding.

5. Gaps in Inclusive Menstrual Education and Institutional Support

The findings reveal that limited educational frameworks and insufficient institutional support systems remain significant barriers to achieving dignified menstruation. Participants emphasized that existing approaches often focus primarily on menstrual products and sanitation facilities while providing insufficient attention to awareness, emotional support, stigma reduction, and inclusive participation.

The study found that many educational environments lack comprehensive menstrual education that addresses not only biological processes but also the social, psychological, and rights-based dimensions of menstruation. Asia Nabizada, a high school teacher, highlighted that students require supportive school environments where menstruation can be discussed openly, accurately, and respectfully.

“Students need accurate information and supportive school environments before and during menstruation so that they can understand this natural process without fear or shame” (A. Nabizada, personal communication, 2026).

The findings identified several institutional gaps affecting menstrual dignity:

Limited teacher preparation: Participants noted that many educators lack adequate training and resources to provide comprehensive puberty and menstrual education.

Insufficient school support systems: Educational institutions often lack policies and supportive environments that enable menstruators to manage menstruation with confidence, privacy, and dignity.

Inadequate disability inclusion: Participants highlighted that many menstrual health initiatives do not sufficiently address the needs of menstruators with disabilities, including accessible information, supportive communication approaches, and inclusive facilities.

The findings indicate that educational institutions play a critical role in shaping attitudes toward menstruation. Participants emphasized that schools should become spaces where accurate information, respect, equality, and inclusion are actively promoted.

6. The Intersection Between Menstrual Discrimination and Gender Inequality

The findings demonstrate that menstrual discrimination is closely connected with broader patterns of gender inequality. Participants described how stigma, restrictions, and unequal expectations surrounding menstruation contribute to limiting participation and reinforcing existing gender-based disadvantages.

Khatima Afzali, a women’s rights activist, emphasized that menstrual discrimination extends beyond access to products and reflects wider social attitudes and unequal structures affecting women’s and girls’ opportunities.

“Menstrual discrimination is not only about menstrual products; it is also about social attitudes, harmful beliefs, and unequal opportunities that affect women’s participation and dignity” (K. Afzali, personal communication, 2026).

The findings show that menstrual discrimination operates through both direct and indirect forms of exclusion. Direct forms include restrictions on participation in education, social activities, religious spaces, or community life. Indirect forms include social pressure, silence, fear of disclosure, and institutional inaction that limit menstruators’ ability to participate fully in society.

Human rights activist Hoda Khamosh further highlighted that when menstruation becomes a reason for limiting participation or access to opportunities, it reflects broader concerns related to equality and human rights (H. Khamosh, personal communication, 2026).

The findings indicate that addressing menstrual discrimination requires attention to the structural factors that maintain gender inequality, including social norms, institutional practices, and unequal access to information and support.

7. The Role of Media and Communication in Challenging Stigma

The findings highlight the significant role of media and public communication in shaping social understanding of menstruation. Participants emphasized that media can either reinforce existing stigma or contribute to transforming public narratives through accurate, respectful, and rights-based representation.

Itoe Francis Ebongue, an investigative journalist, human rights advocate, and communication strategist, emphasized that journalism has an important responsibility in bringing visibility to issues that are often ignored or silenced.

“Journalism has the responsibility to transform public narratives by bringing visibility to issues that are often silenced and by presenting them through the lens of dignity, equality, and human rights” (I. F. Ebongue, personal communication, 2026).

The findings indicate that public discussions about menstruation often remain focused on products, hygiene, or short-term awareness activities, while limited attention is given to discrimination, inequality, institutional responsibility, and lived experiences.

Participants identified several areas where media and communication can contribute to social change:

Promoting accurate and evidence-based information: Supporting public understanding of menstruation through reliable knowledge and awareness.

Amplifying marginalized voices: Highlighting the experiences of groups facing additional barriers, including persons with disabilities.

Challenging harmful stereotypes and social taboos: Creating narratives that reduce stigma and promote respectful dialogue.

Encouraging public discussions on dignity, equality, and human rights: Framing menstruation as a broader social and rights-based issue.

The findings suggest that responsible storytelling and rights-based communication can contribute to changing perceptions and increasing recognition of menstrual dignity as a public concern.

8. Moving Toward a Holistic Dignified Menstruation Framework

The final thematic finding of this study is that achieving menstrual dignity requires moving beyond narrow approaches focused primarily on hygiene management toward a comprehensive framework addressing dignity, equality, freedom, and non-discrimination.

Participants emphasized that access to menstrual products and sanitation facilities, although essential, cannot independently eliminate the social and institutional barriers experienced by menstruators. The findings demonstrate that menstrual dignity requires coordinated attention to education, healthcare, policy systems, disability inclusion, social attitudes, and community engagement.

The study findings align with the broader principles of the Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation (GSCDM), which frames menstruation through the interconnected principles of dignity, freedom, equality, and non-discrimination.

Dignified Menstruation Framework

Dignity
Recognition of menstruation as a natural human experience deserving respect, support, and protection.

Freedom and Equality
Ensuring that menstruators can participate fully in education, employment, healthcare, and social life without restrictions or stigma.

Non-Discrimination
Addressing structural barriers affecting marginalized groups, including menstruators with disabilities.

The findings further indicate that a comprehensive response requires collaboration among governments, educational institutions, healthcare providers, civil society organizations, media actors, religious leaders, and communities. Such coordinated efforts are necessary to create environments where menstruation is experienced without fear, exclusion, or discrimination.

Overall, the research findings demonstrate that dignified menstruation extends beyond menstrual management and represents a broader commitment to equality, human rights, inclusion, and social justice.

Policy and Human Rights Analysis

Menstrual Dignity Within International Human Rights Frameworks

Menstrual discrimination is increasingly recognized as an issue connected with human rights, gender equality, social justice, and non-discrimination. Although menstruation is a natural biological process, the social, cultural, and institutional barriers surrounding it can significantly affect individuals’ ability to enjoy fundamental rights, including human dignity, equality, health, education, privacy, participation, and freedom from discrimination.

This study examines menstrual dignity through established international human rights frameworks, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). These instruments provide essential principles for understanding menstrual discrimination as part of broader systems of inequality and exclusion.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948) establishes the foundation of dignity and equality in international human rights law. Article 1 recognizes that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, while Article 2 affirms protection against discrimination. Furthermore, Article 26 recognizes the right to education, which is particularly relevant in situations where menstrual stigma, inadequate facilities, or lack of institutional support prevent girls and young people from participating equally in educational environments.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, 1979) provides a critical framework for analyzing menstrual discrimination through the lens of gender equality. Article 1 defines discrimination against women, while Article 10 addresses equality in education and Article 12 recognizes equal access to healthcare services. These principles are directly relevant to menstrual dignity because lack of information, stigma, and restricted access to appropriate support systems can contribute to unequal opportunities and gender-based exclusion.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989) is particularly significant for understanding the experiences of adolescents. Article 2 establishes the principle of non-discrimination, Article 12 recognizes children’s right to participate in decisions affecting them, and Article 24 recognizes the right to health, including access to health-related information and services. These provisions highlight the importance of ensuring that young menstruators receive accurate information, supportive environments, and protection from harmful stigma.

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD, 2006) provides an essential framework for examining menstrual dignity through the perspective of disability inclusion. Article 5 establishes equality and non-discrimination, Article 9 emphasizes accessibility, Article 24 addresses inclusive education, and Article 25 recognizes the right to health without discrimination. These principles are directly connected to the need for accessible menstrual education, inclusive facilities, and appropriate support mechanisms for menstruators with disabilities.

Despite the protection provided by these international frameworks, menstrual discrimination remains insufficiently recognized as an explicit human rights concern in many legal and policy systems. Consequently, menstrual challenges are often addressed primarily through health, hygiene, or service-delivery approaches rather than through broader frameworks of equality, dignity, justice, and human rights accountability.

The findings of this study demonstrate that menstrual discrimination affects multiple rights simultaneously. Experiences such as stigma, exclusion, misinformation, inaccessible facilities, and restrictive social practices can limit individuals’ ability to participate fully in education, healthcare, employment, and community life.

Therefore, recognizing menstrual dignity within human rights frameworks does not require establishing a completely separate category of rights. Instead, it requires applying existing principles of dignity, equality, accessibility, health, education, participation, and non-discrimination to menstrual experiences. A rights-based approach enables policymakers and institutions to address not only immediate practical needs but also the deeper social and structural causes of menstrual inequality.

Menstrual Discrimination and the Right to Dignity, Equality, and Non-Discrimination

The findings of this research demonstrate that menstrual discrimination directly challenges the fundamental principles of human dignity, equality, and non-discrimination recognized within international human rights law. Practices such as restricting participation, creating shame and secrecy, limiting access to accurate information, and excluding menstruators from supportive environments contribute to broader patterns of inequality.

A human rights-based analysis shows that menstrual discrimination is not merely an individual, cultural, or health-related concern. When individuals experience humiliation, exclusion, lack of information, or denial of essential support because of menstruation, multiple interconnected rights may be affected. These include the right to dignity and equality (UDHR Articles 1 and 2), the right to education (UDHR Article 26 and CEDAW Article 10), the right to health and health information (CEDAW Article 12 and CRC Article 24), and the right to participation and protection from discrimination (CRC Article 2 and CRPD Article 5).

The research findings indicate that menstrual stigma creates practical barriers affecting individuals’ opportunities and social participation. For example, when girls miss education due to insufficient menstrual support, when individuals avoid healthcare services because of shame, or when persons with disabilities cannot access inclusive menstrual information and facilities, menstrual experiences become connected with wider systems of exclusion.

The Dignified Menstruation framework expands the understanding of menstruation beyond conventional hygiene-focused approaches. While menstrual products, sanitation facilities, and healthcare services remain essential, they alone cannot eliminate discrimination. A dignity-based approach recognizes menstruation as an issue connected with freedom, equality, privacy, bodily autonomy, participation, and the right to live without shame or exclusion.

Therefore, addressing menstrual discrimination requires a comprehensive strategy that combines practical interventions with structural transformation. Such an approach must challenge harmful social norms, strengthen inclusive policies, improve institutional responses, and ensure that every menstruator can experience menstruation with dignity, respect, and equal opportunities.

Analysis of Disability Inclusion and Menstrual Rights

Menstruators with disabilities often experience multiple and interconnected forms of exclusion due to the intersection of disability-related barriers and menstrual stigma. The findings of this research demonstrate that menstrual experiences are not uniform, and individuals with disabilities may encounter additional challenges related to accessibility, communication, dependence on caregivers, limited access to information, and inadequate institutional support systems.

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD, 2006) provides a fundamental framework for understanding menstrual dignity through the principles of equality, accessibility, and inclusion. Article 5 establishes protection against discrimination and guarantees equality before the law. Article 9 emphasizes accessibility, including access to physical environments, information, and communication systems. Article 24 recognizes the right to inclusive education, while Article 25 affirms the right to health without discrimination.

These principles are directly relevant to menstrual dignity because persons with disabilities may require accessible menstrual education, adapted sanitation facilities, appropriate communication methods, and supportive healthcare services. However, existing menstrual health initiatives frequently fail to address these specific needs, often focusing primarily on general awareness, products, and infrastructure without considering diverse experiences and accessibility requirements.

The policy and literature review indicates that disability inclusion is often treated as a separate issue from menstrual rights, despite the fact that many individuals experience overlapping forms of discrimination. Barriers such as inaccessible WASH facilities, lack of disability-inclusive educational materials, limited participation in decision-making processes, and social assumptions about dependency can significantly affect autonomy and dignity.

A rights-based approach requires disability inclusion to be considered a central component of menstrual dignity rather than an additional concern. Ensuring dignified menstruation for persons with disabilities requires policies and programs that guarantee accessible information, inclusive services, meaningful participation, and recognition of individual autonomy.

Analysis of National Policies and Legal Frameworks

Nepal’s National Guidelines for Disability-Inclusive Health Services (2019)

To examine how national policies address disability inclusion and health-related rights, this study analyzes Nepal’s National Guidelines for Disability-Inclusive Health Services (2019) as a comparative policy framework. Although the primary qualitative interviews conducted for this research involved diverse stakeholders from different contexts, including Afghanistan, Nepal’s policy environment provides an important comparative example due to its progressive approaches toward disability inclusion, reproductive health, and social rights.

The guidelines aim to strengthen healthcare accessibility for persons with disabilities by promoting equality, awareness, inclusive service delivery, research, and institutional accountability. They recognize reproductive health as an important component of disability-inclusive healthcare and emphasize the need for services that respond to the specific needs of persons with disabilities.

However, the policy analysis reveals that menstrual dignity remains insufficiently addressed. While reproductive health is recognized broadly, the guidelines do not provide detailed attention to menstrual discrimination, accessible menstrual education, disability-inclusive menstrual support systems, or the specific social barriers experienced by menstruators with disabilities.

This limitation reflects a broader policy challenge identified throughout this research: disability rights and menstrual rights are frequently addressed through separate frameworks, despite their intersection in the lived experiences of many individuals. Future policies should therefore integrate menstrual dignity principles into disability and health frameworks by ensuring accessible information, inclusive facilities, supportive services, and meaningful involvement of persons with disabilities in policy development.

Act Relating to Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2074 (2017)

Nepal’s Act Relating to Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2074 (2017) provides legal protection against discrimination and promotes equality, inclusion, participation, and protection of persons with disabilities.

The legislation contains important provisions related to non-discrimination, social participation, healthcare access, and protection of children with disabilities. However, it does not explicitly recognize menstrual discrimination or address the specific menstrual-related barriers experienced by persons with disabilities.

As a result, menstruators with disabilities may continue to face overlapping forms of exclusion without sufficient legal recognition or targeted protection. This highlights the importance of integrating menstrual dignity into broader disability rights frameworks.

Safe Motherhood and Reproductive Health Rights Act (2018)

Nepal’s Safe Motherhood and Reproductive Health Rights Act (2018) represents an important advancement in recognizing reproductive rights. The Act guarantees access to reproductive health information, healthcare services, confidentiality, and protection from discrimination.

However, its primary focus remains maternal healthcare and reproductive services rather than menstrual dignity as a broader human rights issue. The legislation does not directly address menstrual stigma, social restrictions, or discrimination affecting education, employment, and participation.

The findings of this study suggest that menstrual dignity should be recognized as an essential component of reproductive rights because dignity, equality, and access to information are fundamental elements of reproductive justice.

Prevention of Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act (2015)

Nepal’s Prevention of Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act (2015) establishes mechanisms to prevent harassment and protect individuals within professional environments.

However, workplace-related menstrual discrimination, including stigma, lack of accommodations, pressure to conceal menstruation, and exclusionary practices, remains insufficiently addressed. This demonstrates the need for workplace policies that recognize menstrual dignity as part of safe, inclusive, and equitable working environments.

National Education Policy (2019)

Nepal’s National Education Policy (2019) promotes inclusive education and recognizes the educational rights of students, including students with disabilities.

Although the policy addresses educational inclusion and teaching approaches, it does not sufficiently address menstrual discrimination, comprehensive menstrual education, or disability-inclusive menstrual facilities within schools.

The findings of this research demonstrate that educational institutions require stronger frameworks that integrate menstrual dignity, gender equality, accessibility, and supportive learning environments.

Sixteenth Periodic Plan (2024–2029)

Nepal’s Sixteenth Periodic Plan (2024–2029) represents progress by recognizing issues related to gender equality, social inclusion, disability rights, menstrual health education, and access to menstrual products.

However, the policy approach remains primarily focused on menstrual management indicators rather than addressing the wider dimensions of discrimination, including stigma, restrictions, social exclusion, and unequal participation.

A comprehensive menstrual dignity approach requires moving beyond service provision toward addressing the structural causes that maintain inequality.

Policy Gaps and Institutional Challenges

The analysis demonstrates a significant gap between existing policy commitments and the lived experiences of menstruators. Although many legal and policy frameworks recognize principles of gender equality, health rights, disability inclusion, and social protection, menstrual discrimination remains insufficiently addressed within formal systems.

Most existing approaches continue to emphasize practical interventions, including access to menstrual products, sanitation facilities, and health services. While these measures represent essential components of menstrual support, they do not fully address the underlying social and structural factors contributing to discrimination, including stigma, restrictive social norms, unequal power relations, misinformation, and institutional silence.

The absence of explicit recognition of menstrual discrimination within legal and policy frameworks limits institutional accountability and reduces the capacity of governments and organizations to develop comprehensive responses. Without clear policy commitments, menstrual dignity is often treated as an individual health concern rather than as an issue of equality, justice, and human rights.

The findings indicate that effective policy transformation requires an integrated approach connecting menstrual dignity with gender equality, disability inclusion, education, healthcare, workplace protection, and social participation. Policies should move beyond addressing immediate practical needs and focus on eliminating structural barriers that prevent individuals from experiencing menstruation with dignity.

Menstrual Discrimination as a Human Rights and Gender Equality Concern

The findings of this study demonstrate that menstrual discrimination should be understood as a human rights and gender equality concern because it creates barriers affecting individuals’ ability to participate equally in education, healthcare, employment, and social life.

The research findings reveal that menstrual discrimination operates through multiple interconnected forms of exclusion. Interviews with human rights advocates, women’s rights activists, educators, healthcare professionals, and young people demonstrate that stigma and insufficient institutional support influence not only personal experiences but also access to opportunities, confidence, participation, and decision-making.

The perspectives of human rights and women’s rights advocates highlight that menstrual discrimination becomes a rights issue when social attitudes and institutional failures prevent individuals from accessing education, healthcare information, safe environments, and equal opportunities. Similarly, the experiences shared by students and educators demonstrate that insufficient menstrual education and limited institutional support can create barriers to educational participation.

The study further identifies that discrimination is not always expressed through direct restrictions. It also occurs through less visible mechanisms, including silence, misinformation, inaccessible services, inadequate institutional responses, and social expectations that require menstruators to conceal their experiences.

These findings demonstrate that menstrual dignity requires a shift from viewing menstruation solely as a biological or private matter toward recognizing it as part of broader human rights commitments. Governments, educational institutions, healthcare systems, civil society organizations, and communities must integrate menstrual dignity principles into policies, programs, and accountability mechanisms.

Addressing menstrual discrimination therefore requires both practical interventions and structural transformation. Ensuring access to accurate information, inclusive services, supportive environments, and protection from stigma is essential for advancing equality, participation, and human dignity.

Conclusion of Policy Analysis

The policy review demonstrates that significant progress has been achieved in recognizing gender equality, disability rights, reproductive health, and social inclusion within national and international frameworks. However, menstrual discrimination remains a substantial policy gap requiring stronger legal recognition and institutional attention.

Existing frameworks provide important foundations through principles of dignity, equality, accessibility, health, and non-discrimination. Nevertheless, menstrual experiences are often addressed through limited health and hygiene approaches rather than through comprehensive rights-based frameworks.

A transformative policy response requires moving beyond menstrual management toward a dignity-centered approach that addresses stigma, discrimination, accessibility barriers, social norms, and unequal participation. Integrating menstrual dignity into gender policies, disability frameworks, education systems, healthcare strategies, and institutional practices is essential for creating inclusive societies.

Recognizing menstrual dignity as a fundamental human rights issue does not require establishing an entirely new category of rights. Instead, it requires consistently applying existing human rights principles to menstrual experiences and ensuring that every individual can experience menstruation with dignity, equality, safety, and respect.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to advance menstrual dignity through a human rights-based, inclusive, and dignity-centered approach.

1. Integrate Menstrual Dignity into Policy and Human Rights Frameworks

Governments and policymakers should recognize menstrual discrimination as a human rights, gender equality, and social inclusion issue. National policies should move beyond narrow menstrual hygiene management approaches and address the broader structural dimensions of discrimination, including stigma, exclusion, accessibility barriers, misinformation, and unequal participation.

Menstrual dignity principles should be incorporated into existing legal and policy frameworks related to health, education, gender equality, child protection, disability inclusion, and social justice. Clear institutional responsibilities, accountability mechanisms, and implementation strategies are necessary to ensure that menstrual dignity becomes an integral component of public policy.

2. Strengthen Inclusive Menstrual Education and Supportive Institutional Environments

Educational institutions should implement comprehensive, age-appropriate, and scientifically accurate menstrual education before puberty. Such education should address not only biological knowledge but also emotional wellbeing, stigma reduction, body awareness, equality, and human rights.

Schools and learning environments should strengthen teacher capacity, develop inclusive educational materials, ensure accessible sanitation facilities, and establish supportive systems where students can discuss menstruation without fear, shame, or discrimination. Particular attention should be given to the needs of students with disabilities through accessible communication methods and inclusive educational practices.

3. Promote Social Transformation Through Community Engagement and Responsible Media

Civil society organizations, community leaders, religious leaders, educators, and media professionals should collaborate to challenge harmful misconceptions, cultural stigma, and discriminatory practices surrounding menstruation.

Rights-based communication, ethical journalism, community dialogue, and storytelling approaches should be used to transform public narratives and promote an understanding of menstruation as a natural human experience connected with dignity, equality, and participation. Engagement with influential community actors is essential for creating sustainable social change.

4. Expand Research, Healthcare Support, and Inclusive Menstrual Services

Healthcare institutions, researchers, and development organizations should strengthen evidence-based approaches to menstrual dignity, particularly for marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities and individuals experiencing social exclusion.

Future programs should address both physical and psychological dimensions of menstrual experiences by ensuring access to respectful, confidential, affordable, and inclusive healthcare services. Research should continue exploring the intersection between menstruation, disability, gender inequality, education, and human rights to support more effective policies and interventions.

Conclusion of Recommendations

Advancing menstrual dignity requires coordinated action among governments, institutions, communities, civil society organizations, and individuals. Sustainable progress depends on recognizing menstruation not only as a biological process or health concern, but also as a matter of human dignity, equality, and fundamental rights.

Creating inclusive societies requires eliminating stigma, strengthening supportive systems, and ensuring that every menstruator can experience menstruation with safety, respect, freedom, and equal opportunities.

Conclusion

This research, titled “From Silence to Dignity: Why Dignified Menstruation Matters for Human Rights and Equality,” demonstrates that menstrual discrimination is a multidimensional social and structural issue shaped by cultural norms, gender inequalities, institutional limitations, and gaps in policy implementation. Through qualitative insights from healthcare professionals, psychologists, educators, legal experts, human rights advocates, journalists, activists, religious scholars, and young people, the study highlights how menstrual stigma continues to influence the way menstruation is perceived, discussed, and experienced across diverse social contexts.

The findings reveal that silence, misinformation, and limited access to comprehensive menstrual education remain significant barriers to menstrual dignity. Experiences shared by students and educators demonstrate that inadequate preparation before and during adolescence can contribute to fear, confusion, shame, and reduced confidence among young menstruators. The study emphasizes that supportive family communication, inclusive education, and respectful institutional environments are essential for creating conditions where menstruation can be experienced with knowledge, confidence, and dignity.

The research further demonstrates that menstrual discrimination produces significant psychological and social consequences. Persistent stigma, negative social attitudes, secrecy, and restrictive practices can contribute to anxiety, emotional distress, social isolation, and reduced self-esteem. These findings reinforce that menstrual dignity cannot be achieved through physical resources alone; it also requires attention to psychological wellbeing, social acceptance, and environments free from shame and exclusion.

The study establishes that menstrual discrimination is fundamentally connected with human rights principles. When individuals experience exclusion, restrictions, lack of information, inaccessible services, or unequal opportunities because of menstruation, their rights to dignity, equality, education, health, participation, and non-discrimination are affected. The human rights and legal analysis demonstrates that menstrual dignity should be understood within existing international rights frameworks while requiring stronger recognition and implementation within policies and institutions.

A key finding of this research is the intersection between menstrual discrimination and disability exclusion. Persons with disabilities who menstruate often experience additional barriers, including inaccessible facilities, limited access to appropriate information, communication challenges, and insufficient recognition of their specific needs within existing programs and policies. This highlights the necessity of disability-inclusive approaches that ensure equal access, meaningful participation, and dignity for all menstruators.

The research further concludes that sustainable progress requires a shift from narrow menstrual hygiene approaches toward a holistic Dignified Menstruation framework based on dignity, freedom, equality, and non-discrimination. While menstrual products, sanitation facilities, and healthcare services remain important, they cannot eliminate discrimination without addressing deeper social norms, institutional practices, and structural inequalities.

Ultimately, advancing menstrual dignity requires collective commitment from governments, educational institutions, healthcare systems, civil society organizations, media professionals, communities, and international actors. Recognizing menstruation as a matter of human rights and social equality is essential for building inclusive societies where every person who menstruates can experience menstruation with safety, respect, freedom, and without fear of stigma or discrimination.

Menstrual dignity therefore represents not only improved menstrual experiences, but also a broader commitment to justice, equality, inclusion, and the full realization of human rights.

Limitations of the Study

While this study provides important insights into menstrual discrimination and the importance of dignified menstruation from a human rights, equality, and social justice perspective, several limitations should be acknowledged.

First, this research employed a qualitative design based on semi-structured interviews with selected participants from diverse professional, academic, and social backgrounds. Although these perspectives provided valuable and multidimensional insights, the findings are not intended to represent the experiences of all menstruators globally. Future research with larger and more geographically diverse samples could provide broader comparative evidence and strengthen understanding of different menstrual experiences.

Second, the study was influenced by practical limitations related to time, accessibility, and participant availability. Despite efforts to include diverse perspectives, it was not possible to engage all relevant groups, particularly marginalized communities, persons with disabilities, and individuals living in different social, cultural, and humanitarian contexts.

Third, menstruation remains a sensitive and socially influenced topic in many communities. Some participants may have been affected by cultural expectations, social norms, or personal discomfort when discussing their experiences. Therefore, certain aspects of stigma, discrimination, and lived realities may not have been fully articulated.

Fourth, the study primarily relied on qualitative interviews and document analysis rather than large-scale quantitative data. While this approach enabled deeper exploration of personal experiences and structural challenges, future mixed-methods research combining qualitative and quantitative approaches could provide stronger evidence regarding the prevalence, patterns, and measurable impacts of menstrual discrimination.

Fifth, although this research examined international human rights frameworks, academic literature, and selected policy documents, differences in legal systems, cultural contexts, and institutional structures may influence how menstrual dignity challenges are understood and addressed across countries and communities. Therefore, findings should be interpreted within their specific contextual frameworks.

Finally, this study mainly incorporated perspectives from stakeholders working in health, education, law, media, human rights, and social development. Future research should further explore the perspectives of policymakers, institutional leaders, caregivers, community representatives, and other actors involved in developing and implementing menstrual dignity initiatives.

Despite these limitations, this study contributes to the expanding global discourse on menstrual dignity by demonstrating the relationship between menstrual discrimination, human rights, gender equality, disability inclusion, and social justice. The findings provide a foundation for future research, advocacy, and policy development aimed at creating more inclusive systems where all menstruators can experience dignity, equality, and respect.

*Zabihullah Rahmani is Journalist and Researcher

References

Amatya, P., Ghimire, S., Callahan, K. E., Baral, B. K., & Poudel, K. C. (2018). Practice and lived experience of menstrual exiles (Chhaupadi) among adolescent girls in far-western Nepal. PLOS ONE, 13(12), e0208260. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208260

Baskota, M. (2022). Nepal disability policy review. Disability Research Center, School of Arts, Kathmandu University.

Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation. (2019). Dignified menstruation. https://www.dignifiedmenstruation.org/

Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation. (2025). CEDAW General Recommendation No. 41: Menstrual discrimination is an underlying cause of gender stereotypes, systemic inequalities, and patriarchal power structures.

Government of Nepal. (2015). The Constitution of Nepal.

Government of Nepal. (2017). The Act Relating to Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2074 (2017).

Government of Nepal. (2017). National Penal Code Act, 2017.

Government of Nepal. (2018). The Right to Safe Motherhood and Reproductive Health Act, 2018.

Government of Nepal. (2023). National Child Policy 2080.

Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission. (2024). The Sixteenth Plan (2024–2029).

Hennegan, J., Winkler, I. T., Bobel, C., Keiser, D., Hampton, J., Larsson, G., Chandra-Mouli, V., Plesons, M., & Mahon, T. (2021). Menstrual health: A definition for policy, practice, and research. Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, 29(1), 1911618.

Human Rights Watch. (2017). A step in the right direction on menstrual stigma in Nepal.

Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management Partners’ Alliance. (2024). Policy brief on menstrual health management in Nepal.

Menstrual Health and Hygiene Management Partners’ Alliance. (2025). Menstrual health and hygiene situation in Nepal: Country status report.

MenEngage Alliance. (2025). Nepal’s milestone on dignified menstruation: A case study in policy change and advocacy.

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Government of Nepal. (2019). National Education Policy 2019.

Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Nepal. (2018). The Right to Safe Motherhood and Reproductive Health Act.

Ministry of Health and Population, Department of Health Services, Epidemiology and Disease Control Division. (2019). Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) resources.

Paudel, R. (2017). Compatibility assessment of school textbook with dignified menstruation.

Paudel, R. (2020a). Dignified menstruation: A practical handbook. Kathmandu Publication.

Paudel, R. (2020b). Menstrual restrictions and its impact on learning and education: A case from Jumla, Nepal. Archives of Women Health and Care, 3(2), 1–8.

Paudel, R. (2023). Menstrual discrimination and its impact on decent work.

Paudel, R. (2024a). Menstrual stories: An anthology from Global South. Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation.

Paudel, R. (2024b). Global South Coalition for Dignified Menstruation. In U. Husken, A. Wittich, & N. R. Spina (Eds.), Gendered agency in transcultural Hinduism and Buddhism (pp. 220–227). Routledge.

Radha Paudel Foundation. (2020). Stories of menstrual discrimination among women with disabilities in Nepal.

Resnick, A. (2024). Why period stigma exists and how to normalize menstruation. Verywell Mind.

Singh, S. (2024). Menstrual health challenges for people with disabilities. Pinkishe Foundation.

Sommer, M., Hirsch, J. S., Nathanson, C., & Parker, R. G. (2016). Comfortably, safely, and without shame: Defining menstrual hygiene management as a public health issue. American Journal of Public Health, 106(8), 1302–1311.

Steele, L., & Goldblatt, B. (2020). The human rights of women and girls with disabilities: Sterilization and other coercive responses to menstruation. In C. Bobel et al. (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of critical menstruation studies (pp. 181–199). Palgrave Macmillan.

The Annapurna Express. (2025). High time for schools to challenge menstrual discrimination.

United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

United Nations. (1979). Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).

United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC).

United Nations. (1993). Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women.

United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD).

United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

WaterAid. (2025). We must ensure that people with disabilities have dignity during menstruation.

Wilbur, J., Kayastha, S., Mahon, T., Torondel, B., Hameed, S., Sigdel, A., Gyawali, A., & Kuper, H. (2021). Qualitative study exploring the barriers to menstrual hygiene management faced by adolescents and young people with a disability, and their carers in the Kavrepalanchok district, Nepal. BMC Public Health, 21, Article 10439. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10439-y